Enzyme Lab (#1)

Quesiton:

How do changes in temperature affect the rate of enzyme activity?

Procedure:

1) Grind the enzyme and select 5 discs of filter papers.

2) prepare 3 beaker and 3 test tubes. Beaker #1- fill w/ water and place it on a hot plate. Leave it until the temperature reaches 60 degrees of Celsius. Beaker #2-fill w/ ice cold water and add 8 ice-cubes into the beaker. Leave it until the temp. reaches 6 degrees of celsius. Beaker #3-fill w/ water and leave it in a room temperature.

3)Aquire 5ml of perioxide in each test tubes and place them into each beaker.

4)Add the  peroxide solution and the catalase into a flask. Use the 100ml of graduated cylinder to meaure the amound of gas produced through water. Attach the tubes from the flask into the graudated cylinder and well shake the flask for 30 sec.

5) Record the result and repeat # 4 two more times.

Observations/Results:

	Room temperature trial	Cold temperature trial	Hot temperature trial
Temperature (celcius)	22	6	60
O2 produced (mL)	570	100	200

Sources of Errors:

- inconsistent amounts of perioxide

-inconsistent amounts of paper dics/ enzymes used

-timing (over 30s)

-inconsistent degrees of temperature

-inaccurate meaurement of oxygen

-additional water may used after rinsing

Macromolecules

All liveing matter are composed of the following four types of macromolecules:

1)DNA

2)Carbohydrates

3)Lipids

4)Proteins

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acids)

-Main purpos: stores genentic material for inheritance, replication, protein synthesisand reproduction.
 -It is a long complex chain, polymer,  made up of a nitrogenous base five-carbon sugar and a phosphate group.
- five nitrogenous bases: adnine, guanine, thymine, uracil, and cytosine (A,T,C,G)
-contains phosphodiester bonds, hydrogen bonds, and glycosyl bonds.
-functional groups are: carboxyl group and hydroxyl group


Carbohydrates

-most common organic materials on Earth.
-formula: (CH₂O)_n 
-made up of sugars and their polymers. (OH) group on carbon.
-essential for energy storage and support and structure. Also an energy source for plants and animals.
1) Monosacchride:  (5-6 Carbons)
         -simpleast carbohydrates
         -has linear struture, but through condnsation the chain froms cyclic structures and produce water.
         -Aldose:  has aldehyde funtional group.
                        C=O on the end of the polymer.
         - Ketose:  has keytone functional group.
                        R-C=O on second or the middle of the polymer.
         - glcose and galactose -> form hexagonl rings due to its aldehyde structres)
         -fructose -> forms a pentagonal ring because of its keytone structure.
2) Disacchrides:  
         -two sugars   
         -two types of monosaccharides are covalently linked.
         - maltose (glucose + glucose)
         -sucrose (glucose + frotose)
         -lactose (glactose + glucose)
3) Polysacchride: 
         -forms when thousands of monosaccharide subunites are linked together.        
         -Amylose: (starch) (1-4) linkage
         -Amylopectine:  both (1-4) and (1-6) linkages
         -Glycogen (1-6) linkage
4) Oliaosacchride:  
         -Lectins and selectins



Lipids

-Fats (tryglyceride), Steroids and Phospholipids
-fats: made up of glycerol molecule
-saturated: no double covalent bonds b/w the carbon of the fatty acides. Also has linear structure. (e.g.butter)
-Unsacturated: has ouble bonds with kink. (e.g. margarine)
-phospholipids: bonded to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The phosphate goup is polar whereas the strands are hydrophobic.
-steriods: eg. cholesterol
-Lipids: good source of energy,and membrane structure, hormones, vitamins.



Proteins

-Numerous different functions and shapes.
1) Primary: the sequence of amino acides linked together by amio group and carboxyl group.
                -peptide linkage.
2)Secondary: Hydrogen bond.
               -bends into alpha helix (coil) or beta sheet (plaitedsheet)
3)Teritary: Combine both coil and sheets. (interactions b/w amino acid side chains) 
                -both ionic and covalent bonds. (Vander wall)
4)Quaternary: more than one teritary linkages come together.
               - combination of more than one proteins.



          

DNA REPLICATION

DNA REPLICATION SUMMARY

-To summarize, DNA replication is a semiconservative process, which means there is one parent strand and one daughter strand in the replicated DNA.
-Each parent strand is a template for ordering nucleotides to make a new complimentary strand.
-There are many sites of replication on a strand of DNA called "replication bubbles", with replication forks on each ends.
-The strands in the double helix are antiparallel, so one strand runs in 5' -> 3' direction, while the other runs in 3'->5' direction  (A new DNA strand can only elongate in the 5'->3' direction)

Leading Strand: (continous replication)
 -form a continuous complimentary strand
 -5' -> 3' using DNA polymerase III.
 -into the fork

Lagging strand:
-From 5' ->3', it forms pieces from Okazaki fragments.
-strand are copied away from the fork.
-First RNA primase lace down the RNA primer, the DNA polymerase III (a.k.a. the little brother) lace down new DNA. This process repeats again and again continously. Then DNA Plymerase I (the bigger brother) replaces RNA primer with DNA. Fnally DNA ligase comes and link OKAZAKI fragmets.

 

 

Definition of key ENZYMES:

 

DNA helicase unwinds the double helix.
DNA gyrase (bacterial enzyme) relieves the tension (produced from unwinding of DNA).
Single-stranded binding proteins (SSBs) keeps separated strands of DNA apart.
Primase (RNA polymerase) makes primer, which signals Polymerase III to make complementary strand.
DNA Polymerase III then grabs nucleotides to make complementary strands of DNA.
DNA Polymerase I then replaces the RNA primer with DNA.
DNA ligase join all the gaps that are present on the daughter strands.



 DNA REPLICATION VIDEO WEBSITES:

1) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4jtmOZaIvS0&feature=related2) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=teV62zrm2P0&feature=related

Five Famous Genetic Scientists

Tara Lee

Sept 19 2010



Francis Harry Compton Crick

 
-Francis was born on June 8th, 1916, in  Northampton, England, being the elder child of Harry Crick and Annie Elizabeth Wilkins. He has one brother, A. F. Crick, who is a doctor in New Zealand.
-In 1937, Francis was educated at Northampton Grammar School and Mill Hill School, London. He studied physics at University College, London, obtained a B.Sc.
. In 1949 he joined the Medical Research Council Unit
    ->This Unit was for many years housed in the Cavendish Laboratory Cambridge.
-Francis obtained a Ph.D. in 1954 on a thesis entitled «X-ray diffraction: polypeptides and proteins».
-He worked out the general theory of X-ray diffraction by a helix.
-In 1962, Francis was made an F.R.S. in 1959. He was awarded the Prix Charles Leopold Meyer of the French Academy of Sciences in 1961, and the Award of Merit of the Gairdner Foundation in 1962. Together with J. D. Watson he was a Warren Triennial Prize Lecturer in 1959 and received a Research Corporation Award.
-In 1949 Francis married Odile Speed.
-In 2004, Francis, at age 88, died due to the colon.
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Rosalind Franklin

-Rosalind ,a female scientists, was born on July 25 1920 in Notting Hill, London.
-This scientist studied genetics and had established an expert in the stucture of graphite and other carbon compounds.
-She learned many different teachniques and how to use them wisely to extract DNA fibers and arrange them into bundles.
-Roaslind discovered the key to DNA structure.
-Unfortunately she did not receive the due credit for her role in dicovering the structure of DNA (carrier of genentic material).
- Roaslind was the first to produce photographs that illustrated DNA's helical strucature and identify the location of phosphate sugars in DNA.
 Rosalind died of cancer on April 16, 1958.

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Gregor Mendel

-  Gregor Mendel, one of the famous genetic scientists, was an Austrian monk and biologist. -  Mendel was born on July 22, 1822 in Heizendorf, Austria -  This wise man worked on heredity for many years and it became the basis of the genetic  theory that we study today. -  He studied in Vienna and he spent his time to carry out the practical experiments in biology. Two years after, he went on an investigation to study the variation, heredity and evolution in plants ( such as garden pea).  - He studied the offspring of the seeds that he implanted years after years and discovered that the offspring's phenotype is determined by the crossing over the parents' genes.      -> Forexample, "crossing tall and short parent plants he got hybrid offspring that resembled the tall parent rather than being a medium height blend." -Mendel explained that this concept of heredity units are called, what we now know, genes.     -> These genes are expressed either dominant or recessive characteristics. Dominance is a trait that shows up an offspring, where as, recessiveness is a trait that does not show up in an offspring. - Mendel  died in 1884.          ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Barbara McClintock

-Barbara was born on June 16 1902.
-She was an American cytogenticist who was the Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine in 1983.
-She received PhD in Cornell University in 1927.
-Barbara studied chromosomes and how they change during reproduction in maize. She also developed the technique for visualizing maize chromosomes and used microscopic analysis to demonstrate many fundamental genetic ideas, including genetic recombination by crossing-over during meiosis
- She produced first genetic map for maize and demonstrated the role of telomere and centromere.
-She was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1944.
-Babara found the abnormal locus breaking chormosome moved from one chromosomal location to another, which is now called transposition.
-Later in her life, she was the only woman who received the Nobel Prize and this fact was recorded in our history.
-In  1992, she had her last breath.

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Paul Berg

 














-Paul  was born in 1926, Brooklyn New York and still lives.
-He is a Molecular biologist who created the first recombinant DNA molecules and also created the field of genetic engineering.
- He combined DNA from the cancer-cauing monkey virus and lambda virus to create the first DNA molecules. And had also developed a technique to splice DNA together from different types of organisms.
- His work lead researchers to turn simple organisms into organisms producing valuable medical drugs.
- He was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
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Bibiliography:
http://www.google.ca/search?hl=ko&biw=1260&bih=838&q=Paul+Berg+&btnG=%EA%B2%80%EC%83%89&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/Gregor_Mendel.php
nobelprize.org/nobel.../crick-bio.html